Clostridioides difficile Enfeksiyonu: Epidemiyolojik Paternler, Teşhis Araçları ve Tedavi Yöntemlerine İlişkin Güncellemeler

Lanzas C, Jara M, Tucker R, Curtis S; CDC Modeling Infectious Diseases in Healthcare Program (MinD). A review of epidemiological models of Clostridioides difficile transmission and control (2009-2021). Anaerobe. 2022;74:102541.

Kechagias KS, Chorepsima S, Triarides NA, Falagas ME. Tigecycline for the treatment of patients with Clostridium difficile infection: an update of the clinical evidence. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2020;39:1053-8.

Zhang S, Palazuelos-Munoz S, Balsells EM, Nair H, Chit A, Kyaw MH. Cost of hospital management of Clostridium difficile infection in United States-a meta-analysis and modelling study. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:447.

Scott RD. The Direct Medical Costs of Healthcare-Associated Infections in U.S. Hospitals and the Benefits of Prevention. Last Accessed Date: October 9, 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/hai/pdfs/hai/scott_costpaper. pdf

Loo VG, Bourgault AM, Poirier L, Lamothe F, Michaud S, Turgeon N, Toye B, Beaudoin A, Frost EH, Gilca R, Brassard P, Dendukuri N, Béliveau C, Oughton M, Brukner I, Dascal A. Host and pathogen factors for Clostridium difficile infection and colonization. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1693-703.

Gerding DN, Johnson S, Rupnik M, Aktories K. Clostridium difficile binary toxin CDT: mechanism, epidemiology, and potential clinical importance. Gut Microbes. 2014;5:15-27.

Keel MK, Songer JG. The comparative pathology of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Vet Pathol. 2006;43:225-40.

Sunenshine RH, McDonald LC. Clostridium difficile-associated disease: new challenges from an established pathogen. Cleve Clin J Med. 2006;73:187-97.

Hookman P, Barkin JS. Clostridium difficile-associated infection, diarrhea and colitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15:1554-80.

Burns DA, Heap JT, Minton NP. Clostridium difficile spore germination: an update. Res Microbiol. 2010;161:730-4.

Gerding DN, Young VB and Donskey CJ. Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile) infection. In: Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ (eds). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2020.

De Roo AC, Regenbogen SE. Clostridium difficile Infection: An Epidemiology Update. Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2020;33:49-57.

Durovic A, Widmer AF, Tschudin-Sutter S. New insights into transmission of Clostridium difficile infection-narrative review. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2018;24:483-92.

Kelly CP, LaMont JT. Clostridium difficile--more difficult than ever. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1932-40.

Cruz MP. Fidaxomicin (Dificid), a novel oral macrocyclic antibacterial agent for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults. P T. 2012;37:278-81.

AbdelKhalek A, Mohammad H, Mayhoub AS, Seleem MN. Screening for potent and selective anticlostridial leads among FDA-approved drugs. J Antibiot (Tokyo). 2020;73:392-409.

CDC, Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States, 2019, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, Atlanta, GA, 2019. Last Accessed Date: October 11, 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/biggest-threats.html

Roberts K, Smith CF, Snelling AM, Kerr KG, Banfield KR, Sleigh PA, Beggs CB. Aerial dissemination of Clostridium difficile spores. BMC Infect Dis. 2008;8:7.

McDonald LC, Coignard B, Dubberke E, Song X, Horan T, Kutty PK; Ad Hoc Clostridium difficile Surveillance Working Group. Recommendations for surveillance of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2007;28:140-5.

Lessa FC, Mu Y, Bamberg WM, Beldavs ZG, Dumyati GK, Dunn JR, Farley MM, Holzbauer SM, Meek JI, Phipps EC, Wilson LE, Winston LG, Cohen JA, Limbago BM, Fridkin SK, Gerding DN, McDonald LC. Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:825-34.

Caupenne A, Ingrand P, Ingrand I, Forestier E, Roubaud-Baudron C, Gavazzi G, Paccalin M. Acute Clostridioides difficile Infection in Hospitalized Persons Aged 75 and Older: 30-Day Prognosis and Risk Factors for Mortality. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2020;21:110-4.

Tariq R, Law CCY, Khanna S, Murthy S, McCurdy JD. The Impact of Clostridium difficile Infection on Mortality in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2019;53:127-33.

Magill SS, O’Leary E, Janelle SJ, Thompson DL, Dumyati G, Nadle J, Wilson LE, Kainer MA, Lynfield R, Greissman S, Ray SM, Beldavs Z, Gross C, Bamberg W, Sievers M, Concannon C, Buhr N, Warnke L, Maloney M, Ocampo V, Brooks J, Oyewumi T, Sharmin S, Richards K, Rainbow J, Samper M, Hancock EB, Leaptrot D, Scalise E, Badrun F, Phelps R, Edwards JR; Emerging Infections Program Hospital Prevalence Survey Team. Changes in Prevalence of Health Care-Associated Infections in U.S. Hospitals. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:1732-44.

Guh AY, Mu Y, Winston LG, Johnston H, Olson D, Farley MM, Wilson LE, Holzbauer SM, Phipps EC, Dumyati GK, Beldavs ZG, Kainer MA, Karlsson M, Gerding DN, McDonald LC; Emerging Infections Program Clostridioides difficile Infection Working Group. Trends in U.S. Burden of Clostridioides difficile Infection and Outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1320-30.

Miller BA, Chen LF, Sexton DJ, Anderson DJ. Comparison of the burdens of hospital-onset, healthcare facility-associated Clostridium difficile Infection and of healthcare-associated infection due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in community hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32:387-90.

Mullane K. Fidaxomicin in Clostridium difficile infection: latest evidence and clinical guidance. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2014;5:69-84.

Brajerova M, Zikova J, Krutova M. Clostridioides difficile epidemiology in the Middle and the Far East. Anaerobe. 2022;74:102542.

Curcio D, Cané A, Fernández FA, Correa J. Clostridium difficile-associated Diarrhea in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Infect Dis Ther. 2019;8:87-103.

El-Sokkary RH, Gerges MA, Sharaf HE, Fattah LA, Amer FA, Tash RM, Aamir R, Sherif AM, Hegab MS, Elashkar SSA, Khalil AM, Al-Akad GM, Salah TS. Clostridium difficile occurrence, toxin profile and antibiotic susceptibility: An Egyptian center experience. Egypt J Med Microbiol. 2017;26:31-6.

Elgendy SG, Aly SA, Fathy R, Deaf EAE, Abu Faddan NH, Abdel Hameed MR. Clinical and microbial characterization of toxigenic Clostridium difficile isolated from antibiotic associated diarrhea in Egypt. Iran J Microbiol. 2020;12:296-304.

Roldan GA, Cui AX, Pollock NR. Assessing the burden of Clostridium difficile infection in low-and middle-income countries. J Clin Microbiol. 2018;56:e01747-17.

Balsells E, Shi T, Leese C, Lyell I, Burrows J, Wiuff C, Campbell H, Kyaw MH, Nair H. Global burden of Clostridium difficile infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Glob Health. 2019;9:010407.

Slimings C, Riley TV. Antibiotics and hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: update of systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:881-91.

Nguyen GC, Kaplan GG, Harris ML, Brant SR. A national survey of the prevalence and impact of Clostridium difficile infection among hospitalized inflammatory bowel disease patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103:1443-50.

Furuya-Kanamori L, Wangdi K, Yakob L, McKenzie SJ, Doi SAR, Clark J, Paterson DL, Riley TV, Clements ACA. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations and Clostridium difficile Infection: A Meta-Analysis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2017;41:890-5.

Di Bella S, Friedrich AW, García-Almodóvar E, Gallone MS, Taglietti F, Topino S, Galati V, Johnson E, D’Arezzo S, Petrosillo N. Clostridium difficile infection among hospitalized HIV-infected individuals: epidemiology and risk factors: results from a case-control study (2002-2013). BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:194.

Ziakas PD, Zacharioudakis IM, Zervou FN, Grigoras C, Pliakos EE, Mylonakis E. Asymptomatic carriers of toxigenic C. difficile in long-term care facilities: a meta-analysis of prevalence and risk factors. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0117195.

Oshima T, Wu L, Li M, Fukui H, Watari J, Miwa H. Magnitude and direction of the association between Clostridium difficile infection and proton pump inhibitors in adults and pediatric patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gastroenterol. 2018;53:84-94.

Permpalung N, Upala S, Sanguankeo A, Sornprom S. Association between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015:16960.

Novack L, Kogan S, Gimpelevich L, Howell M, Borer A, Kelly CP, Leffler DA, Novack V. Acid suppression therapy does not predispose to Clostridium difficile infection: the case of the potential bias. PLoS One. 2014;9:e110790.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014 National and state healthcare-associated infections progress report. Last Accessed Date: October 14, 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/hai/data/archive/2014-progress-report.html

Balsells E, Filipescu T, Kyaw MH, Wiuff C, Campbell H, Nair H. Infection prevention and control of Clostridium difficile: a global review of guidelines, strategies, and recommendations. J Glob Health. 2016;6:020410.

Fu Y, Luo Y, Grinspan AM. Epidemiology of community-acquired and recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2021;14:17562848211016248.

Rodriguez-Palacios A, Mo KQ, Shah BU, Msuya J, Bijedic N, Deshpande A, Ilic S. Global and Historical Distribution of Clostridioides difficile in the Human Diet (1981-2019): Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 21886 Samples Reveal Sources of Heterogeneity, High-Risk Foods, and Unexpected Higher Prevalence Toward the Tropic. Front Med (Lausanne). 2020;7:9.

Ofori E, Ramai D, Dhawan M, Mustafa F, Gasperino J, Reddy M. Community-acquired Clostridium difficile: epidemiology, ribotype, risk factors, hospital and intensive care unit outcomes, and current and emerging therapies. J Hosp Infect. 2018;99:436-42.

Knight DR, Riley TV. Genomic delineation of zoonotic origins of Clostridium difficile. Front Public Health. 2019;7:164.

McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Bakken JS, Carroll KC, Coffin SE, Dubberke ER, Garey KW, Gould CV, Kelly C, Loo V, Shaklee Sammons J, Sandora TJ, Wilcox MH. Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:1-48.

Khanna S, Pardi DS, Aronson SL, Kammer PP, Orenstein R, St Sauver JL, Harmsen WS, Zinsmeister AR. The epidemiology of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:89-95.

Chitnis AS, Holzbauer SM, Belflower RM, Winston LG, Bamberg WM, Lyons C, Farley MM, Dumyati GK, Wilson LE, Beldavs ZG, Dunn JR, Gould LH, MacCannell DR, Gerding DN, McDonald LC, Lessa FC. Epidemiology of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection, 2009 through 2011. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1359-67.

Fawley WN, Davies KA, Morris T, Parnell P, Howe R, Wilcox MH; Clostridium difficile Ribotyping Network (CDRN) Working Group. Enhanced surveillance of Clostridium difficile infection occurring outside hospital, England, 2011 to 2013. Euro Surveill. 2016.

Alfayyadh M, Collins DA, Tempone S, McCann R, Armstrong PK, Riley TV, Cook A. Recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection in the Western Australian population. Epidemiol Infect. 2019;147:153.

Ogielska M, Lanotte P, Le Brun C, Valentin AS, Garot D, Tellier AC, Halimi JM, Colombat P, Guilleminault L, Lioger B, Vegas H, De Toffol B, Constans T, Bernard L. Emergence of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: the experience of a French hospital and review of the literature. Int J Infect Dis. 2015;37:36-41.

Martínez-Meléndez A, Morfin-Otero R, Villarreal-Treviño L, Baines SD, Camacho-Ortíz A, Garza-González E. Molecular epidemiology of predominant and emerging Clostridioides difficile ribotypes. J Microbiol Methods. 2020;175:105974.

Laszkowska M, Kim J, Faye AS, Joelson AM, Ingram M, Truong H, Silver ER, May B, Greendyke WG, Zucker J, Lebwohl B, Hur C, Freedberg DE. Prevalence of Clostridioides difficile and Other Gastrointestinal Pathogens in Patients with COVID-19. Dig Dis Sci. 2021;66:4398-405.

Luo Y, Grinspan LT, Fu Y, Adams-Sommer V, Willey DK, Patel G, Grinspan AM. Hospital-onset Clostridioides difficile infections during the COVID-19 pandemic. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2021;42:1165-6.

Ponce-Alonso M, Sáez de la Fuente J, Rincón-Carlavilla A, Moreno-Nunez P, Martínez-García L, Escudero-Sánchez R, Pintor R, García-Fernández S, Cobo J. Impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on nosocomial Clostridioides difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2021;42:406-10.

Hazel K, Skally M, Glynn E, Foley M, Burns K, O’Toole A, Boland K, Fitzpatrick F. The other ‘C’: Hospital-acquired Clostridioides difficile infection during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2022;43:540-1.

Granata G, Bartoloni A, Codeluppi M, Contadini I, Cristini F, Fantoni M, Ferraresi A, Fornabaio C, Grasselli S, Lagi F, Masucci L, Puoti M, Raimondi A, Taddei E, Trapani FF, Viale P, Johnson S, Petrosillo N, On Behalf Of The CloVid Study Group. The Burden of Clostridioides Difficile Infection during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Retrospective Case-Control Study in Italian Hospitals (CloVid). J Clin Med. 2020;9:3855.

Crobach MJ, Planche T, Eckert C, Barbut F, Terveer EM, Dekkers OM, Wilcox MH, Kuijper EJ. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the diagnostic guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22(Suppl 4):63-81.

Debast SB, Bauer MP, Kuijper EJ; European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(Suppl 2):1-26.

Gerding DN, File Jr TM, McDonald LC. Diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Infect Dis Clin Pract (Baltim Md). 2016;24:3.

Peng Z, Ling L, Stratton CW, Li C, Polage CR, Wu B, Tang YW. Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile infections. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2018;7:15.

Burnham CA, Carroll KC. Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection: an ongoing conundrum for clinicians and for clinical laboratories. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013;26:604-30.

Bartlett JG. Detection of Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31(Suppl 1):35-7.

Carroll KC, Mizusawa M. Laboratory Tests for the Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile. Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2020;33:73-81.

Brecher SM, Novak-Weekley SM, Nagy E. Laboratory diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infections: there is light at the end of the colon. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1175-81.

Moehring RW, Lofgren ET, Anderson DJ. Impact of change to molecular testing for Clostridium difficile infection on healthcare facility-associated incidence rates. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34:1055-61.

Abujamel T, Cadnum JL, Jury LA, Sunkesula VC, Kundrapu S, Jump RL, Stintzi AC, Donskey CJ. Defining the vulnerable period for re-establishment of Clostridium difficile colonization after treatment of C. difficile infection with oral vancomycin or metronidazole. PLoS One. 2013;8:e76269.

Lee HS, Plechot K, Gohil S, Le J. Clostridium difficile: Diagnosis and the Consequence of Over Diagnosis. Infect Dis Ther. 2021;10:687-97.

Goldenberg JZ, Yap C, Lytvyn L, Lo CK, Beardsley J, Mertz D, Johnston BC. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;12:CD006095.

van Prehn J, Reigadas E, Vogelzang EH, Bouza E, Hristea A, Guery B, Krutova M, Norén T, Allerberger F, Coia JE, Goorhuis A, van Rossen TM, Ooijevaar RE, Burns K, Scharvik Olesen BR, Tschudin-Sutter S, Wilcox MH, Vehreschild MJGT, Fitzpatrick F, Kuijper EJ; Guideline Committee of the European Study Group on Clostridioides difficile. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: 2021 update on the treatment guidance document for Clostridioides difficile infection in adults. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27(Suppl 2):1-21.

Caroff DA, Menchaca JT, Zhang Z, Rhee C, Calderwood MS, Kubiak DW, Yokoe DS, Klompas M. Oral vancomycin prophylaxis during systemic antibiotic exposure to prevent Clostridiodes difficile infection relapses. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2019;40:662-7.

Ganetsky A, Han JH, Hughes ME, Babushok DV, Frey NV, Gill SI, Hexner EO, Loren AW, Luger SM, Mangan JK, Martin ME, Smith J, Freyer CW, Gilmar C, Schuster M, Stadtmauer EA, Porter DL. Oral Vancomycin Prophylaxis Is Highly Effective in Preventing Clostridium difficile Infection in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplant Recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68:2003-9.

Kokai-Kun JF, Roberts T, Coughlin O, Le C, Whalen H, Stevenson R, Wacher VJ, Sliman J. Use of ribaxamase (SYN-004), a β-lactamase, to prevent Clostridium difficile infection in β-lactam-treated patients: a double-blind, phase 2b, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:487-96.

Johnson S, Lavergne V, Skinner AM, Gonzales-Luna AJ, Garey KW, Kelly CP, Wilcox MH. Clinical Practice Guideline by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA): 2021 Focused Update Guidelines on Management of Clostridioides difficile Infection in Adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:1029-44.

Surawicz CM, Brandt LJ, Binion DG, Ananthakrishnan AN, Curry SR, Gilligan PH, McFarland LV, Mellow M, Zuckerbraun BS. Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infections. Am J Gastroenterol. l 2013;108:478-98.

Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, Weiss K, Lentnek A, Golan Y, Gorbach S, Sears P, Shue YK; OPT-80-003 Clinical Study Group. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:422-31.

Tannock GW, Munro K, Taylor C, Lawley B, Young W, Byrne B, Emery J, Louie T. A new macrocyclic antibiotic, fidaxomicin (OPT-80), causes less alteration to the bowel microbiota of Clostridium difficile-infected patients than does vancomycin. Microbiology. 2010;156:3354-9.

Marković V, Kostić M, Iličković I, Janković SM. Cost-Effectiveness Comparison of Fidaxomicin and Vancomycin for Treatment of Clostridium difficile Infection: A Markov Model Based on Data from a South West Balkan Country in Socioeconomic Transition. Value Health Reg Issues. 2014;4:87-94.

Chen J, Gong CL, Hitchcock MM, Holubar M, Deresinski S, Hay JW. Cost-effectiveness of bezlotoxumab and fidaxomicin for initial Clostridioides difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27:1448-54.

Wilcox MH, Gerding DN, Poxton IR, Kelly C, Nathan R, Birch T, Cornely OA, Rahav G, Bouza E, Lee C, Jenkin G, Jensen W, Kim YS, Yoshida J, Gabryelski L, Pedley A, Eves K, Tipping R, Guris D, Kartsonis N, Dorr MB; MODIFY I and MODIFY II Investigators. Bezlotoxumab for Prevention of Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:305-17.

Vega AD, Heil EL, Blackman AL, Banoub M, Kristie Johnson J, Leekha S, Claeys KC. Evaluation of Addition of Intravenous Metronidazole to Oral Vancomycin Therapy in Critically Ill Patients with Non-Fulminant Severe Clostridioides difficile Infection. Pharmacotherapy. 2020;40:398-407.

Rokas KE, Johnson JW, Beardsley JR, Ohl CA, Luther VP, Williamson JC. The Addition of Intravenous Metronidazole to Oral Vancomycin is Associated With Improved Mortality in Critically Ill Patients With Clostridium difficile Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:934-41.

Gergely Szabo B, Kadar B, Szidonia Lenart K, Dezsenyi B, Kunovszki P, Fried K, Kamotsay K, Nikolova R, Prinz G. Use of intravenous tigecycline in patients with severe Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective observational cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22:990-5.

Manea E, Sojo-Dorado J, Jipa RE, Benea SN, Rodríguez-Baño J, Hristea A. The role of tigecycline in the management of Clostridium difficile infection: a retrospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2018;24:180-4.

Ng QX, Loke W, Foo NX, Mo Y, Yeo WS, Soh AYS. A systematic review of the use of rifaximin for Clostridium difficile infections. Anaerobe. 2019;55:35-9.

Vickers RJ, Tillotson GS, Nathan R, Hazan S, Pullman J, Lucasti C, Deck K, Yacyshyn B, Maliakkal B, Pesant Y, Tejura B, Roblin D, Gerding DN, Wilcox MH; CoDIFy study group. Efficacy and safety of ridinilazole compared with vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, active-controlled, non-inferiority study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17:735-44.

Hutton ML, Pehlivanoglu H, Vidor CJ, James ML, Thomson MJ, Lyras D. Repurposing auranofin as a Clostridioides difficile therapeutic. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2020;75:409-17.

Andersson JA, Peniche AG, Galindo CL, Boonma P, Sha J, Luna RA, Savidge TC, Chopra AK, Dann SM. New Host-Directed Therapeutics for the Treatment of Clostridioides difficile Infection. mBio. 2020;11:e00053-20.

Rasko DA, Sperandio V. Anti-virulence strategies to combat bacteria-mediated disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2010;9:117-28.

Khodaverdian V, Pesho M, Truitt B, Bollinger L, Patel P, Nithianantham S, Yu G, Delaney E, Jankowsky E, Shoham M. Discovery of antivirulence agents against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:3645-52.

Cegelski L, Marshall GR, Eldridge GR, Hultgren SJ. The biology and future prospects of antivirulence therapies. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008;6:17-27.

Mellbye B, Schuster M. The sociomicrobiology of antivirulence drug resistance: a proof of concept. mBio. 2011;2:e00131-11.

Pellissery AJ, Vinayamohan PG, Venkitanarayanan K. In vitro antivirulence activity of baicalin against Clostridioides difficile. J Med Microbiol. 2020;69:631-9.

Boix V, Fedorak RN, Mullane KM, Pesant Y, Stoutenburgh U, Jin M, Adedoyin A, Chesnel L, Guris D, Larson KB, Murata Y. Primary Outcomes From a Phase 3, Randomized, Double-Blind, Active-Controlled Trial of Surotomycin in Subjects With Clostridium difficile Infection. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017;4:ofw275.

Gerding DN, Cornely OA, Grill S, Kracker H, Marrast AC, Nord CE, Talbot GH, Buitrago M, Gheorghe Diaconescu I, Murta de Oliveira C, Preotescu L, Pullman J, Louie TJ, Wilcox MH. Cadazolid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: results of two double-blind, placebo-controlled, non-inferiority, randomised phase 3 trials. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:265-74.

Fischer M, Sipe B, Cheng YW, Phelps E, Rogers N, Sagi S, Bohm M, Xu H, Kassam Z. Fecal microbiota transplant in severe and severe-complicated Clostridium difficile: A promising treatment approach. Gut Microbes. 2017;8:289-302.